Can Contaminated/Dirty Tap Water Cause Alzheimer’s Disease?

In Alzheimer's-Proofing, General Information by Matthew Bell

Current research suggests that Alzheimer’s-Disease susceptibility roughly corresponds to a 70-30 formula. To be specific, around 70% of your risk will be inherited risk. This is the risk that’s built into your family health history, and it may be measurable with a genetic test. (For more on such a genetic test, see HERE.) That leaves 30% of your risk to fall on non-genetic factors. This is the portion of your risk that comes from your behaviors, your environment, and so on.

Although it has not been definitively established by scientists, it is reasonable to think that exposure to contaminated drinking water can constitute a significant risk to our health. Even in first-world countries, water contamination is a serious problem. From naturally occurring compounds like bacteria and heavy metals to industrial waste products like pesticides and pharmaceuticals, the junk in our drinking water could be – at least partly – responsible for the brain inflammation and toxicity that is characteristic of Alzheimer’s.

Background

As General Jack Ripper (played by Sterling Hayden) put it in Stanley Kubrick’s 1964 film, Dr. Strangelove: “Water. That’s what I’m getting at: water. …Why, do you realize that 70 percent of you is water?” That may be overstating things a bit. Figures vary. But, indeed, human beings are arguably upwards of 50% water.

To put it another way, our bodies are literally saturated with water, and we require clean, fresh water to live. General Ripper, as kooky as he may have been, got that bit right. Even a broken clock is correct twice a day!

The sad – and somewhat shocking – fact is, however, that our drinking water isn’t as clean as we might hope. And it’s a lot, well… dirtier than many people are aware.

According to one article, in the U.S. alone, “…29 million people [are] drinking water that missed the mark on either health or reporting standards.”[1] And that just means that their drinking water isn’t as clean as the bare minimum required by governing regulations.

But, regulations sometimes allow quite a bit to get through.[2] And, in other cases, polluting materials can work their way into the water between the processing facility and your drinking glass.

The contaminants found in drinking water could lead to cell and tissue damage in almost any part of our body. But perhaps the scariest thing to consider – and our present focus – is the potential for damage to our brains and nervous systems.

The brain is somewhat insulated from run-of-the-mill contaminants by something called the “blood-brain barrier.” Without getting into the physiological details, this barrier is a byproduct of the function of brain and spinal blood vessels. It effectively blocks many, but not all, harmful substances from getting to our master control center.

There is little question but that we are daily exposed to environmental toxins. To get a fix on the scope of the problem, look at a list of some of the things that might show up in drinking water. Bear in mind that not every area will be equally polluted. Not all these chemicals (or other compounds) are found in every water sample. But this list – although it is not exhaustive – can give you an idea of why this may very well be a problem.

List of Some Contaminants Possibly Found in Municipal Water

Inorganic Materials

To flash back to high school chemistry, I note that “inorganic” matter is that which does not contain carbon. That clears it right up, doesn’t it? Take heart, the actual chemical properties are of secondary importance in the present context. The basic point that I am making is that there is a lot of crud in our water supply.

Contaminants include the following.

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals run the gamut in terms both of effects on health as well as of source. Take aluminum, for instance. In 1989, the vaunted Chicago Tribune reported: “Fact No. 1: High levels of aluminum have been found in the brains of victims of Alzheimer’s disease… Fact No. 2: An aluminum compound is commonly used to purify public drinking water supplies. Fact No. 3: Neither the federal nor the state government has set standards for the amount of aluminum that is allowed in drinking water.”[3]

Even if the water coming into your home is clean – and, chance are, it isn’t – the fact is that it can become contaminated by your own pipes. “…Low levels of lead exposure are linked to damage to a child’s blood cells and nervous system, as well as learning disabilities, poor hearing, impaired growth and more. …Lead ‘bio-accumulates’ in the body, which means it stays and builds up over time, so ongoing exposure, even at extremely low levels, can become toxic. …[L]ead can enter your home when lead plumbing materials, which can include faucets, pipes, fittings and the solder that holds them all together, become corroded and begin to release lead into the water.”[4]

Well water is by no means perfect, either. Another example? Iron, which is mostly found at low levels, can harbor bacteria (on which, see more, below). “…[I]ron sediments may contain trace impurities or harbor bacteria that can be harmful. Iron bacteria are naturally occurring organisms that can dissolve iron and some other minerals. These bacteria also form a brown slime that can build up in water pipes. Iron bacteria are most commonly problematic in wells, where water has not been chlorinated.”[5] (But on the health risks of chlorination, see further down.)

Or, again, according to the United States Environment Protection Agency (EPA), inorganic mercury usually comes from “erosion of natural deposits; discharge from refineries and factories; runoff from landfills; and runoff from croplands.”[6] “High exposure to inorganic mercury may result in damage to …the nervous system… Symptoms of high exposures to inorganic mercury include: …memory loss …[and] mental disturbances…”.[7]

Heavy Metals at a Glance:

  • Aluminum
  • Antimony
  • Barium
  • Beryllium
  • Bismuth
  • Cadmium
  • Cobalt
  • Chromium
  • Copper
  • Iron
  • Lead
  • Mercury
  • Molybdenum
  • Nickel
  • Silver[8]
  • Vanadium
  • Zinc

Medical Compounds

“A vast array of pharmaceuticals including antibiotics, anti-convulsants, mood stabilizers and sex hormones have been found in the drinking water supplies of at least 41 million Americans… [T]he concentrations of these pharmaceuticals are tiny, …[b]ut the presence of so many prescription drugs and over-the-counter medicines like acetaminophen and ibuprofen in so much of our drinking water is heightening worries among scientists of long-term consequences to human health.”[9]

One upsetting aspect of this is the fact that the Environmental Protection Agency does not officially track the presence of pharmaceuticals in drinking water. Peruse the list of 90 or so chemicals that it does monitor, and you won’t find any mention of either prescription or over-the-counter medications.[10]

 

Pharmaceuticals at a Glance:

  • Analgesics or NSAIDs (Acetaminophen, Aspirin, Carbamazepine, Diclofenac, Fentanyl, Hydrocodone, Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Oxycodone, etc.)
  • Antibiotics (Ciprofloxacin, Erythromycin, Penicillin, Sulfamethoxazole, Trimethoprim), Barbiturates (Clonazepam, Phenobarbital, Primidone, etc.)
  • Disinfectants (Chloramine, Formaldehyde, Triclosan, etc.)
  • Hormones (Estrogen, Progesterone/Progestin, Testosterone, etc.)
  • Simulants (Amphetamine [Adderall], Caffeine, methylphenidate [Ritalin], etc.)

Metalloids

In 2013, the New York Times, America’s “newspaper of record,” reported on a “a toxic element common in drinking water.”[11] The element in question? The well-known slow-acting poison arsenic!

“It seeps into groundwater[.] …[F]or many years its presence was mostly noted and dismissed by public health researchers. They’ve changed their minds. Long famed for its homicidal toxicity at high doses, a number of studies suggest that arsenic is …able to do damage even at low doses.”

Metalloids at a Glance:

  • Arsenic
  • Selenium

Potentially Harmful Gases

An article in Scientific American reported on the fact that “[a]lthough chlorine is widely used as an effective way to disinfect drinking water, researchers are concerned that it can lead to bladder, rectal and breast cancers.”[12]

Gases at a Glance:

  • Ammonia
  • Chlorine

Miscellaneous Chemicals

This category could be wide-ranging. But I will simply note that a few chemicals – like haloacetic acids and trihalomethanes – are formed as by-products of the chlorination process. Basically, hazardous chemicals can be formed in attempts to disinfect the water supply.

“[C]hlorine [see above] …interacts with organic compounds to create trihalomethanes (THMs)—which when ingested encourage the growth of free radicals that can destroy or damage vital cells in the body.”[13] “The trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids have demonstrated carcinogenic activity in laboratory animals.”[14]

Miscellaneous Chemicals at a Glance:

  • Haloacetic Acids
  • Octylphenols
  • Nonylphenols
  • Trihalomethanes

Radioactive Compounds

“Does your tap water contain the radioactive element radium? You might be surprised to hear that tap water for more than 170 million Americans contains the compound…”.[15] “Radium in water may pose a hazard to human health when the water is used for drinking or cooking. …Absorbed radium …is deposited in the tissues of the body, especially bone …[,] emits alpha particles[,] …[and] may …damage surrounding tissue.”[16]

Although not as widespread of a risk, uranium is also found in some U.S. drinking-water samples. One recent headline declared: “6 million U.S. residents are drinking uranium-contaminated water…”.[17]

Radioactive Compounds at a Glance:

  • Radium (Ra-226, Ra-228)[18]
  • Uranium[19]

Organic Materials

“Organic” materials are those that do contain carbon. Usually, these are the things that are “associated” with living matter. But, again, even if my taxonomies are a bit off, the underlying purpose of this list is simply to help readers get a handle on the scope of the possible contamination.

Potentially Harmful Salts

“[N]itrate …[is] a common groundwater contaminant …that stems from chemical and animal waste fertilizers. …Nitrate has …adverse health effects on humans…”.[20]

Salts at a Glance:

  • Chloride
  • Fluoride
  • Nitrate
  • Nitrite
  • Perchlorate

Viruses & Bacteria

Let’s start off with an example that really shocked me when I found out about it. Ever heard of Salmonella? That’s exclusive to raw eggs, right? Anyway, that’s what I thought; but, no!

In 2008, residents of one Colorado town were sickened by Salmonella – in their tap water. “State health officials warned residents of a southern Colorado town Wednesday to stop drinking and cooking with tap water because they said it might be linked to a salmonella outbreak.”[21]

The presence in drinking water – and even municipal tap water – of various viruses and bacteria has been documented in several peer-reviewed scientific journals.[22] Most of these critters have scary names, like Legionella pneumophila.[23]

Bacteria & Viruses at a Glance:

  • Adenovirus
  • Anabaena circinalis
  • Astrovirus
  • Bacillus atrophaues
  • Bacteriophage MS2
  • Calicivirus (Norwalk)
  • Coliform bacteria (e.g., e. Coli)
  • Cytomegalovirus[24]
  • Enterovirus (e.g., Coxsackie A & B, ECHO, Poliovirus)
  • Giardia lamblia (“Beaver Fever”)
  • Hepatitis A and E
  • Legionella pneumophila (“Legionnaires’ Disease”)
  • Norovirus, Polyomavirus[25]
  • Raoultella terrigena
  • Rotavirus
  • Salmonella Enterica.

Fungi

“Tap water is a potential site of pathogenic fungal contamination and may be a particular concern even in urban areas of developing nations. …In the United States, …drinking water is considered ‘among the safest in the world’… . Nevertheless, pathogenic fungi can still enter drinking water in developed nations, including all types of treated tap and bottled water.”

Fungi at a Glance:

  • Acremonium
  • Aspergillus
  • Candida (albicans, parapsilosis)
  • Chaetomium
  • Cladosporium
  • Exophiala dermatitidis
  • Fusarium
  • Microsporidia
  • Mycelia
  • Paecilomyces
  • Penicillium
  • Trichoderma

Parasites

Parasites are some of the creepiest things on my list. They may or may not be the most damaging among the other tap-water difficulties that we’ve surveyed. But they certainly have a high “ick factor.”

Could it be a problem? The Minnesota Department of Health once reported: “In April 1993, an intestinal parasite called Cryptosporidium was responsible for a major outbreak of illness in the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. More than 400,000 people became ill after drinking contaminated water from the city water supply system.”[26]

Parasites at a Glance:

  • Cryptosporidium parvum
  • Rotifera

Pesticides

Is this really a concern? Here’s what the Washington Post revealed under the title ““First Evidence Found of Popular Farm Pesticides in Drinking Water”: “…[S]cientists studying the country’s waterways [have] started to detect neonicotinoid pollutants. In 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey collected water samples from streams throughout the United States and discovered neonicotinoids in more than half of the samples. …[More recently,] …chemists and engineers at the USGS and University of Iowa reported that they found neonicotinoids in treated drinking water.”[27]

There are a million pesticides and other volatile compounds. Virtually all of them have ponderous chemical names. I will not try to make an exhaustive list but will satisfy myself with hitting a few of the highlights.

Pesticides at a Glance:

  • Acenaphthylenes
  • Bromofluorobenzenes
  • Bromomethanes
  • Chlorobenzenes
  • Chloroethanes
  • Chlorotoluenes
  • Dichloroethanes
  • Dichloroethylenes
  • Dichloropropanes
  • Ethylbenzenes
  • Glyphosates
  • Hexachlorobenzenes
  • Hexachlorobutadiene
  • Isopropylbenzenes
  • Isopropyltoluenes
  • Monochlorobenzenes
  • Pentachlorophenols
  • Naphthalenes
  • Tetrachloroethanes
  • Trichlorobenzenes
  • Trichloroethanes
  • Trichlorofluoromethanes
  • Trichlorotrifluoroethanes

Is Bottled Water a Viable Alternative?

Possibly. It may be much better than certain municipal water supplies. But consider a couple of things.

First, various water-bottling facilities get their source water from municipal water. Thus, in cases like this, unless there is considerable secondary purification at the bottling facility, it is likely that your bottled water is only as good as the run-of-the-mill tap water.

This might be why one journalist disclosed that she was told by an EPA employee: “with bottled water ‘it’s a crapshoot what you’re getting.’”[28]

Another writer stated flat-out: “don’t think that buying bottled water is any solution.”[29]

Sometimes bottled water can introduce new hazards. For example, “…bottled water is tested at the plant, not after it’s been sitting in plastic for up to two years. Chemicals from bottles have been shown to leach into water over time.”[30]

So, second, chemicals like Bisphenol A (also called BPA) – which may not be in tap water – can get into your bottled water. According to an article on the website of the prestigious Mayo Clinic: “BPA is an industrial chemical that has been used to make …polycarbonate plastics… . Polycarbonate plastics are often used in …water bottles.”[31]

One recent “study show[ed] that BPA is a ubiquitous contaminant in surface, tap and bottled mineral water.”[32]

True, it is usually present in “[l]ow levels.”[33] But, according to some sources, “BPA is a micropollutant, a type of everyday chemical that can affect people even in low doses. Most of our exposure comes from canned food and plastic food and drink containers. Studies have also shown that the chemical is found in …drinking water.”[34]

“…BPA [is] detect[able] in most …drinking water samples. BPA in tap water …[is worst] in samples collected from taps connected to PVC pipes and water filter devices. Bottled mineral water had lower levels of BPA …[,] although samples stored in poor storage condition had significantly higher levels… .”[35]

How Can You Protect Yourself From Contaminated Water?

The really disturbing part is that our water-treatment facilities seem to be inadequate in many ways.

For example, some contaminants are allegedly traceable “to the water treatment process” itself.[36] We’ve already seen (above) that the primary means of disinfection – water chlorination – can actually precipitate chemicals (like trihalomethanes) that are (probably) carcinogenic. Even some carbon-element filters can harbor bacteria. This is why, once upon a time, water-filter elements were impregnated with silver. (For more on silver – including its alleged antibiotic properties – and how it can possibly make sense to include it in your diet, see HERE.)

And if, as we just mentioned in the previous section, bottled water leaves something to be desired. What is there left to do?

It turns out that, even if you have access to it, the “raw” water right out of a stream may not be the best choice either. It can be teeming with all sorts of environmental toxins, parasites, and pollutants.[37] Is there anything that we can safely drink?

Hope is not lost. But it may be wise to implement a multi-layered strategy. For instance, you’ll definitely want to employ some sort of water filter in your home.

Purification Methods

“[A] variety of methods may be used to remove potentially harmful microorganisms from the water supply. …[T]he most common methods to treat community water supplies (particularly when the source is surface water, which is generally more prone to significant contamination then groundwater) include coagulation and flocculation (positively charged chemicals are added to bind with negatively charged dirt and other particulate matter), sedimentation of these now larger particles, filtration using natural and artificial filters, and disinfection with chemicals such as chlorine or chloramine (often done as the final step in water purification).”[38]

Boiling

Boiling is a highly effective way to kill pathogenic (and other) microorganisms. Most microorganisms are unable to survive in water temperatures between 160° and 185° Fahrenheit (70°-85° Celsius). Therefore, bringing a water sample to a full boil – usually, at 212° F (100° C) – will more or less completely eradicate pathogens. Boiling for a few minutes virtually ensures that the sample will be clean.[39]

However, boiling will not remove (all) chemical pollutants. (Although, possibly, some may evaporate.) Other processes are required for total water purification.

Coagulation

The process of water coagulation involves the introduction of a chemical (e.g., alum) that causes microscopic contaminants to “clump,” allowing them to be more easily filtered out of the water.

BPA removal:

A sort of coagulation process is used in the removal of Bisphenol A, or “BPA.” “Terrence Collins at Carnegie Mellon University in Pennsylvania and his colleagues set out to find a cheap way to remove BPA from water. After 15 years of work, the team came up with a solution: first, they add a group of catalysts called TAML activators to contaminated water, next they add hydrogen peroxide.

“The TAML activators work much like the enzymes in our bodies do, speeding up chemical reactions. In combination with the hydrogen peroxide, the TAML activators cause the BPA in pH-neutral water – the typical pH of wastewater – to assemble into larger clumps called oligomers within 30 minutes. These clumps aren’t harmful, and can be easily filtered out of the water.”[40] (On filtration, see below.)

Disinfection

“Disinfection” has several, possible meanings. Most generally, it simply refers to the counteraction of an “infection” – which, in this case, basically amount to the presence of some kind of microorganism (perhaps pathogenic) in the water supply. Now the “infection” of a water sample could be countered by removing the relevant microorganism. In this sense, purification methods such as filtration could be considered “disinfection” methods.

Chlorine

However, on most common usage of the word, what is in view is the deactivation or killing of a pathogen by chemical means. Under this definition, the primary method of disinfection at the municipal level is chlorination.

“Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to drinking water to disinfect it and kill germs. Different processes can be used to achieve safe levels of chlorine in drinking water. Chlorine is available as compressed elemental gas, sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) or solid calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2. While the chemicals could be harmful in high doses, when they are added to water, they all mix in and spread out, resulting in low levels that kill germs but are still safe to drink.”[41]

Iodine

“Iodine has been shown to be more effect than chlorine-based treatments in inactivating Giardia cysts. Be aware that some people are allergic to iodine and cannot use it as a form of water purification. Persons with thyroid problems or on lithium, women over fifty, and pregnant women should consult their physician prior to using iodine for purification. Also, some people who are allergic to shellfish are also allergic to iodine. If someone cannot use iodine, use either a chlorine-based product or a non-iodine-based filter… Iodine is light sensitive and must always be stored in a dark bottle.”[42]

Flocculation

Coagulation is employed in conjunction with a process known as “flocculation.” In this process, the water is stirred in such a way as to prompt the smaller clumps to group together.

Sedimentation

In the sedimentation process, suspended particles basically “fall” in the water and come to rest at the bottom of the containing vessel where, in principal, they can be readily removed.

Letting Your Water ‘Sit’

Some people will pour a glass or pitcher of water and then it sit. The idea is to allow chlorine to “vent” – or “off gas” – out of the water. Online, I have seen various time recommendations. But a few that recur involve letting the water sit overnight or for 24 hours.

Whether this method is effective or not is unclear. And, in any case, it will probably only remove gaseous chlorine. You will still need a method to address other chemicals and pathogens, if they are issues in your area.

Filtration

Oftentimes, water can be “filtered.” This means that the water is made to pass through a porous piece of material – called the filter or filter element. The idea is that the pores in the material are small enough that fine particles are unable to pass through and are thus removed from the water sample.

This is probably the most widespread and accessible method for home water purification. (For our specific product suggestions, see below.)

Conclusion

While there is certainly nothing like a scientific consensus that Alzheimer’s Disease or any other form of dementia is caused by dirty, contaminated, or otherwise polluted drinking water, there are genuine concerns. Chemical and pathogenic biological materials find their ways into the water supply – and, often, our drinking cups. Some of these contaminants are suspected of having negative effects upon the human nervous system and brain. Others are known to cause inflammation of body tissues, or even are thought to be contributing causes to various cancers.

Thus, I would put my tentative conclusion like this. From a theoretical perspective, I don’t know whether to worry about my tap water putting me at risk of Alzheimer’s. But, from a practical point of view, that is because I have gotten into the habit of purifying my water before I drink it. I suggest that you think about doing the same thing.

I See the Problem! What’s the Solution?

There are a number things that you can do, today, to improve the quality of your water. One thing that I recommend is obtaining a good quality filter system and water-disinfecting tablets (as backups).

For Alzheimer’sProof’s recommended water-purification products, see HERE.

Notes

[1] Elizabeth Royte, “Tap Water’s Dirty Little Secret,” Huffington Post, Sept. 18, 2008, updated May 25, 2011, <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/elizabeth-royte/tap-waters-dirty-little-s_b_119590.html>.

[2] According to (my reading of) a post on the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) website, many unregulated chemicals include fuel additives, herbicides, and pesticides such as: “1,2-diphenylhydrazine; 2,4,6-trichlorophenol; 2,4-dichlorophenol; 2,4-dinitrophenol; 2,4-dinitrotoluene; 2,6-dinitrotoluene; 2-methyl-phenol; 4,4′-DDE; Acetochlor; Aeromonas; DCPA di-acid degradate; DCPA mono-acid degradate; Diazinon; Disulfoton; Diuron; EPTC; Fonofos; Linuron; MTBE; Molinate; Nitrobenzene; Nitrobenzene; Perchlorate; Prometon; Terbacil; and Terbufos. And these are just the ones that the EPA required water facilities to monitor.

[3] Stevenson Swanson, “Aluminum in Tap Water Worries Experts,” Chicago Tribune, Dec. 10, 1989, <https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-12-10-8903160868-story.html>.

[4] Sandee LaMotte, “How to Test for Lead in Your Home Water Supply,” CNN, Feb. 10, 2016, <https://www.cnn.com/2016/01/21/health/lead-testing-home-drinking-water/index.html>.

[5] Karen Garvin, “Health Effects of Iron in Drinking Water, LiveStrong, Oct. 3, 2017, <https://www.livestrong.com/article/158629-health-effects-of-sulfur-in-water/>.

[6] “How Does Mercury Get Into My Drinking Water?” Ground Water and Drinking Water Fact Sheets, EPA, <https://safewater.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/212076067-5-How-does-mercury-get-into-my-drinking-water>.

[7] “Health Effects of Exposures to Mercury,” (EPA), Feb. 16, 2018, <https://www.epa.gov/mercury/health-effects-exposures-mercury>.

[8] Silver can have salubrious effects.

[9] Jeff Donn, Martha Mendoza, and Justin Pritchard, “Pharmawater I: Pharmaceuticals Found in Drinking Water, Affecting Wildlife and Maybe Humans,” Associated Press, <http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/pharmawater_site/day1_01.html>.

[10] Things Tested for by the EPA include: Microorganisms [Cryptosporidium; Giardia lamblia; Heterotrophic plate count HPC]; Legionella [Legionnaire’s Disease]; Coliforms [including fecal coliform and E. Coli]; Turbidity; Viruses [enteric]), Disinfection Byproducts (Bromate; Chlorite; Haloacetic acids [HAA5]; Trihalomethanes), Disinfectants (Chloramines [as Cl2]; Chlorine [as Cl2]; Chlorine dioxide [as ClO2]), Inorganic Chemicals (Antimony; Arsenic; Asbestos; Barium; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Copper; Cyanide [free]; Fluoride; Lead; Mercury [inorganic]; Nitrate; Nitrite; Selenium; Thallium), Organic Chemicals (Acrylamide; Alachlor; Atrazine; Benzene; Benzo[a]pyrene [PAHs]; Carbofuran; Carbon tetrachloride; Chlordane; Chlorobenzene; 2,4-D; Dalapon; 1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane [DBCP]; o-Dichlorobenzene; p-Dichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichloroethane; 1,1-Dichloroethylene; cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene; trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene; Dichloromethane; 1,2-Dichloropropane; Di[2-ethylhexyl] adipate; Di[2-ethylhexyl] phthalate; Dinoseb; Dioxin [2,3,7,8-TCDD]; Diquat; Endothall; Endrin; Epichlorohydrin; Ethylbenzene; Ethylene dibromide; Glyphosate; Heptachlor; Heptachlor epoxide; Hexachlorobenzene; Hexachlorocyclopentadiene; Lindane; Methoxychlor; Oxamyl [Vydate]; Polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs]; Pentachlorophenol; Picloram; Simazine; Styrene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene; Toxaphene; 2,4,5-TP [Silvex]; 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,1,1-Trichloroethane; 1,1,2-Trichloroethane   ; Trichloroethylene; Vinyl chloride; Xylenes), and Radionuclides (Alpha particles; Beta particles; photon emitters; Radium 226, Radium 228, Uranium). “National Primary Drinking Water Regulations,” Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Mar. 22, 2018, <https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations>.

[11] Deborah Blum, “The Arsenic in Our Drinking Water,” New York Times, Sept. 20, 2013, <https://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/09/20/the-arsenic-in-our-drinking-water/>.

[12] “Tapped Out?: Are Chlorine’s Beneficial Effects in Drinking Water Offset by Its Links to Cancer?” n.d., <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-talks-tapped-out/>.

[13] “Tapped Out?: Are Chlorine’s Beneficial Effects in Drinking Water Offset by Its Links to Cancer?” n.d., <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-talks-tapped-out/>.

[14] Michael Hiscock and Michael Pereira “Health Risk of the Trihalomethanes Found in Drinking Water Carcinogenic Activity and Interactions,” Medical College of Ohio in conjunction with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Jan. 8, 2000; updated online Nov. 29, 2018 <https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncer_abstracts/index.cfm/fuseaction/display.highlight/abstract/22>.

[15] Rachael Rettner, “Is There Radium in Your Tap Water? New Map Can Show You,” Live Science, Jan. 11, 2018, <https://www.livescience.com/61397-tap-water-radium.html>.

[16] “Radium in Drinking Water,” Illinois Department of Public Health, Jan. 2008, <http://www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/factsheets/radium.htm>.

[17] Barbara Tasch, “6 Million U.S. Residents Are Drinking Uranium-Contaminated Water That Could Increase Risk of Liver Damage,” Business Insider, Aug. 18, 2015, <https://www.businessinsider.com/high-uranium-levels-of-drinking-water-in-the-central-us-2015-8>.

[18] To see a map of areas with tap water containing detectable levels of radium, click HERE.

[19] See a map, HERE.

[20] Barbara Tasch, “6 Million U.S. Residents Are Drinking Uranium-Contaminated Water That Could Increase Risk of Liver Damage,” Business Insider, Aug. 18, 2015, <https://www.businessinsider.com/high-uranium-levels-of-drinking-water-in-the-central-us-2015-8>. Nitrate also exacerbates the uranium problem (on which, see above), as it can render the compound water soluble. Ibid.

[21] “Salmonella Outbreak Linked to Tap Water: Illness Has Sickened Dozens in Colorado Town, Officials Say,” NBCNews.com, Mar. 20, 2008, <http://www.nbcnews.com/id/23726402/>.

[22] K. Botzenhart, “Viren im Trinkwasser” [“Viruses in Drinking Water”], Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz [“Federal Gazette for Health Research”], vol. 50, no. 3, Mar. 2007, pp. 296-301, German <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00103-007-0155-4>, English: <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17334891>.; and Aimee Gall, Benito Mariñas, Yi Lu, and Joanna Shisler, “Waterborne Viruses: A Barrier to Safe Drinking Water,” Pathogens, Public Library of Science (PLoS), vol. 11, no. 6, Jun. 25, 2015, <https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1004867>.

[23] See p. 33, <https://digitalrepository.aurorahealthcare.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1262&context=jpcrr>.

[24] The body gets rid of this virus in the urine. It can contaminate water in this way.

[25] The body also excretes this virus the urine. It can contaminate water in this way.

[26] “Cryptosporidium,” Minnesota Department of Health, Drinking Water Protection Section, n.d., <http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/water/factsheet/com/cryptosporidium.html>.

[27] Ben Guarino, “First Evidence Found of Popular Farm Pesticides in Drinking Water,” Washington Post, Apr. 5, 2017, <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/04/05/iowa-scientists-find-first-evidence-of-popular-farm-pesticides-in-drinking-water/>.

[28] Elizabeth Royte, “Tap Water’s Dirty Little Secret,” Huffington Post, Sept. 18, 2008, updated May 25, 2011, <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/elizabeth-royte/tap-waters-dirty-little-s_b_119590.html>.

[29] “Tapped Out?: Are Chlorine’s Beneficial Effects in Drinking Water Offset by Its Links to Cancer?” n.d., <https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-talks-tapped-out/>. The author was talking about the health dangers of chlorine (on which, see above), and continued by noting that you may not avoid the dangers of chlorinated tap water by switching to bottled. “Much of the bottled water for sale in the U.S. comes from public municipal water sources that are often treated with, you guessed it, chlorine.”

[30] Ibid.

[31] Brent Bauer, “What Is BPA, and What Are the Concerns About BPA?” Mayo Clinic, Mar. 11, 2016, <https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-answers/bpa/faq-20058331>.

[32] V. Santhia, N. Sakaiab, E. Ahmada, A. Mustafaa, “Occurrence of Bisphenol A in Surface Water, Drinking Water and Plasma from Malaysia with Exposure Assessment from Consumption of Drinking Water,” Science of The Total Environment, vols 427 & 428, Jun. 15, 2012, pp. 332-338, <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969712005736>. True, this study was conducted in Malaysia. Given this, some readers may worry that the results are inapplicable to people living in places – e.g., the E.U., U.S., Canada, U.K., etc. – where BPA is being “phased out.” However, number one, BPA’s “…replacements, like fluorene-9-bisphenol, might be just as harmful. …BPA replacements haven’t been adequately tested.” According to Aylin Woodward, “How to Strip 99 Per Cent of Harmful BPA From Water in 30 Minutes,” New Scientist, Aug. 2, 2017, <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2142662-how-to-strip-99-per-cent-of-harmful-bpa-from-water-in-30-minutes/>. Number two, BPA-containing bottles are still used in the U.S., etc. – even though their use is (supposedly) being phased out.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Aylin Woodward, “How to Strip 99 Per Cent of Harmful BPA From Water in 30 Minutes,” New Scientist, Aug. 2, 2017, <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2142662-how-to-strip-99-per-cent-of-harmful-bpa-from-water-in-30-minutes/>.

[35] V. Santhia, N. Sakaiab, E. Ahmada, A. Mustafaa, “Occurrence of Bisphenol A in Surface Water, Drinking Water and Plasma from Malaysia with Exposure Assessment from Consumption of Drinking Water,” Science of The Total Environment, vols 427 & 428, Jun. 15, 2012, pp. 332-338, <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969712005736>.

[36] “Bacteria in Tap Water Can Be Traced to the Water Treatment Process,” Phys.org, University of Michigan, Aug. 20, 2012, <https://phys.org/news/2012-08-bacteria-treatment.html>.

[37] See, e.g., Tara C. Smith, “‘Raw Water’ Isn’t Better for You—but It Could Definitely Hurt You,” Self, Jan. 11, 2018, <https://www.self.com/story/raw-water-isnt-better-for-youbut-it-could-definitely-hurt-you>.

[38] See Dennis Baumgardner, “Freshwater Fungal Infections,” article 5, Journal of Patient-Centered

Research and Reviews, vol. 4, no. 1, Jan. 31, 2017, p. 33, <https://digitalrepository.aurorahealthcare.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1262&context=jpcrr>.

[39] Rick Curtis, The Backpacker’s Field Manual, New York: Random House, 1998; online as “OA Guide to Water Purification,” Princeton Univ., n.d., <http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/manual/water.shtml>.

[40] Aylin Woodward, “How to Strip 99 Per Cent of Harmful BPA From Water in 30 Minutes,” New Scientist, Aug. 2, 2017, <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2142662-how-to-strip-99-per-cent-of-harmful-bpa-from-water-in-30-minutes/>.

[41] “Disinfection with Chlorine,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Jun. 22, 2015, <https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/public/chlorine-disinfection.html>.

[42] Rick Curtis, The Backpacker’s Field Manual, New York: Random House, 1998; online as “OA Guide to Water Purification,” Princeton Univ., n.d., <http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/manual/water.shtml>.